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Table 1. Etiology and relevant treatment options of male infertility

Cause of Infertility	Treatment Options

Extratesticular causes of male infertility
Gonadotropin deficiency
Kallmann syndrome	Not available
Hemochromatosis	Venesection^a
Laurence-Moon-Biedl syndrome	Not available
Prader-Willi syndrome	Gonadotropins
Familial cerebral ataxia	Not available
Pituitary tumor	Surgery^a
Prolactinoma	Dopamine agonist^a
Hypothalamic tumor	Surgery^a
Tuberculosis	Antibacterials^a
Fungal infections	Antifungals^a
Sarcoidosis	Corticosteroids^a
Histiocytosis	Not available
Opioids, psychotropic drugs	Change drugs^a
Postpituitary surgery	Gonadotropins^a
Postpituitary irradiation	Gonadotropins^a
Malnutrition	Nutrition^a
Obesity	Weight loss^a
Chronic illness	Specific treatment according to disease
Ejaculatory dysfunction
Psychosexual	Psychotherapy^a
Iatrogenic	—
Postgenitourinary surgery	Ephedrine/amitriptyline^a
Retrograde ejaculation	Ephedrine/amitriptyline
Epididymal obstruction
Congenital absence of vas deferens	Sperm retrieval^b
Infection (gonorrhea, Chlamydia)	Sperm retrieval^b
Vasal obstruction
Congenital	Sperm retrieval^b
Infection	Antibacterial^b
Vasectomy	Vasectomy reversal
Others
Erectile dysfunction	Specific to the patient's condition
Sperm autoantibodies	ICSI^b
Epididymal dysfunction	ICSI/IVF^b
Accessory gland infection	ICSI/IVF^b
Testicular causes of male infertility
Acquired
Viral orchitis	ICSI/IVF^b
Bacterial orchitis	ICSI/IVF^b
Vascular (torsion)	ICSI/IVF^b
Irradiation	ICSI/IVF^b
Chemotherapy	ICSI/IVF^b
Castration	ICSI/IVF^b
Drugs (marijuana, etc)	Rehabilitation^a
Heat	ICSI/IVF^b
Trauma	ICSI/IVF^b
Idiopathic	ICSI/IVF^b
Genetic causes of male infertility	Not available

Abbreviations: ICSI, intracytoplasmic sperm injection; IVF, in vitro fertilization.
aSpecific treatment.
bEmpirical treatment.

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